At the turn of the last century, the global transportation landscape was a chaotic frontier where the future of mobility remained entirely undecided. In 1898, the United States was home to roughly 50 carmakers, a number that multiplied fivefold over the span of a single decade. Production climbed rapidly from just 7,000 vehicles in 1901 to 181,000 by 1910, reflecting a burgeoning industrial might. For several transformative decades, electric cars vied directly with those powered by steam and internal combustion engines, leaving consumers and manufacturers alike uncertain which technology would ultimately dominate the market.
Steam power brought the heavy legacy of railway locomotive technology, but it carried an inherent risk of fire and could become exceedingly hot depending on the placement of the boiler and steam piping. Meanwhile, both gasoline and electric vehicles faced profound logistical hurdles centered around range: how far could a motorist travel without needing to refuel or recharge? While a driver of a gasoline car could easily throw an extra fuel can in the back, charging a battery demanded careful planning in an era before a long-distance charging infrastructure existed.
Before the invention of the electric starter in 1911, gasoline-powered engines required a strenuous hand crank to start. Once running, they were notoriously loud and emitted noxious fumes. Fully electric vehicles, by contrast, offered a remarkably civilized driving experience. They were easy to start with the simple turn of a main battery switch, often operated by a key, and produced zero foul exhaust.
Recognizing these distinct advantages, electric carmakers sought ways to differentiate their products and concluded that these attributes made electric vehicles ideal for women. Electric cars were also aggressively marketed to professionals such as doctors, who needed to make silent house calls in the middle of the night without waking the neighborhood. General Electric, which manufactured car chargers utilizing mercury-arc rectifiers, became so captivated by the synergy between women drivers and electric vehicles that it launched an extensive advertising campaign. These promotional materials featured stylishly dressed women effortlessly plugging in their cars and posing proudly beside their home charging stations.
Among the early adopters of this technology was a young woman named Fannie Goodnow. She owned a 1908 Bailey Victoria Phaeton, an open two-seater that bore a striking resemblance to a traditional horseless carriage, and she relied on a GE mercury-arc rectifier to keep its batteries charged.
Who Invented the Mercury-Arc Rectifier?
Electrical engineer Peter Cooper Hewitt is widely credited with the invention of the mercury-arc rectifier, a breakthrough that underpinned early charging technology. During the first decade of the 20th century, Hewitt secured several U.S. patents for electric lamps and related apparatus designed for transmitting and utilizing electric currents. Subsequent patents granted to Percy H. Thomas further advanced Hewitt’s foundational designs. Thomas served as the chief electrician for the Cooper Hewitt Electric Co., which Hewitt had cofounded alongside industrialist George Westinghouse to manufacture and commercialize his electric lamps.
The mercury-arc rectifier functioned essentially as a high-powered diode. In car chargers like the one utilized by Fannie Goodnow, the device converted alternating current from the municipal power grid into the direct current required to replenish a vehicle’s battery. The mechanism relied on a small quantity of liquid mercury housed inside a glass tube, which would vaporize and emit a bright glow as electricity passed through it. Coupled with carbon anodes, this vapor permitted electrical current to flow in only a single direction. A depleted battery typically required about 12 hours to achieve a full charge using this equipment.
A Carriage Maker Pivots to Electric Cars
While historical records do not specify why Fannie Goodnow chose an electric car, her status as a well-to-do resident of the Boston area gave her access to more than half a dozen competing automobile producers. Ultimately, she selected a vehicle manufactured by S.R. Bailey & Co. of Amesbury, Massachusetts.
According to automotive historian Galen Handy, who maintains the Early Electric Vehicles website, company founder Samuel Robinson Bailey began his career in the carriage and sleigh business as a teenager. He achieved early recognition by winning a best-in-show prize at a carriage exhibition in Portland, Maine, in 1855. Bailey cultivated a strong reputation as an inventor, developing streamlined manufacturing processes for his vehicles before establishing his own independent business in 1882. Just over a decade later, one of Bailey’s bespoke carriages earned a gold medal at the prestigious 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Bailey’s son Edwin attended the exposition, where he encountered a transformative vision of the future: the Morrison electric wagon. This six-passenger, battery-powered vehicle was deployed to ferry fair visitors and VIPs around the exhibition grounds. Within a short time, the rapid rise of the automobile began cutting deeply into the traditional carriage trade. Confronted with a collapsing carriage market, S.R. Bailey & Co. announced in December 1906 that it was officially transitioning into the manufacture of electric vehicles.
Thomas Edison Designed a Bad Battery
Bailey’s inaugural automobile model, the Victoria Phaeton, was originally equipped with an Edison alkaline battery. Inventor Thomas Edison had spent years working on a lighter, more reliable, and more powerful battery tailored for the burgeoning auto industry, announcing his technological achievement with considerable fanfare in 1903. Unfortunately for Bailey and other early carmakers who adopted it, the early iteration of the battery leaked persistently and struggled to hold a charge, forcing Edison back to the drawing board. Although Edison eventually perfected an improved battery that entered production by 1910, his close friend Henry Ford had already introduced the mass-produced Model T, firmly setting the stage for the internal combustion engine to capture the broader market.
As Edison labored to refine his technology, Bailey pivoted to sourcing alternative power storage from the Gould Storage Battery Co. of Depew, New York. Gould was an established industrial supplier providing batteries for railroads, utilities, subways, elevators, and agricultural operations. Fannie Goodnow’s Victoria Phaeton was powered by a 30-cell lead-acid battery housed within a wooden box suspended securely beneath the chassis. The standard battery configuration provided a driving range of 64 to 80 kilometers, while an optional larger battery boasting 50 percent more capacity was available for an additional fee. Equipped with the standard battery, the Victoria Phaeton retailed for US $2,000, equivalent to roughly $73,000 today—putting it roughly on par with the list price of an upscale modern electric vehicle.
Goodnow installed her mercury-arc rectifier charging station inside the barn adjacent to her parents’ summer home in Hull, Massachusetts. Bill Lillie of Vintage Electric Cars notes that the charging plug utilized by the vehicle featured an unusual design, highlighting one of the persistent frustrations faced by early technology adopters: a complete lack of standardized plugs and cables. The Electric Vehicle Association of America, formed in 1910, attempted to establish a universal standard so that electric vehicles could be recharged seamlessly at any available station. Savvy early EV owners, however, quickly learned to carry spare plug adapters and cables whenever they embarked on extended journeys.
When Edison’s improved alkaline battery finally became commercially viable, Bailey integrated it into the Victoria Phaeton and launched an ambitious publicity blitz. In September 1910, the manufacturer sponsored a grueling round-trip endurance tour covering approximately 1,600 kilometers from New York to Boston, which included a punishing ascent up New Hampshire’s Mount Washington.
Although Thomas Edison personally posed for photographs alongside the newly outfitted Bailey Victoria Phaeton, he ultimately chose a Detroit Electric Victoria for his own daily transportation needs. Given that Edison was notoriously regarded as a poor driver, it is widely believed that a chauffeur navigated his vehicle for him.
Ultimately, S.R. Bailey was unable to withstand the overwhelming market pressure exerted by the mass production of the Ford Model T. The company sold its factory in 1915, having successfully produced between 500 and 600 electric vehicles during its manufacturing run.
Though Fannie Goodnow’s choice of vehicle represents a minor footnote in the grand sweep of automotive history, the legacy of early adopters endures through the artifacts they left behind. While her specific 1908 Bailey Victoria Phaeton has been lost to time, her original mercury-arc rectifier charging station remained intact until 2022, when it was donated to the Heritage Museums & Gardens in Sandwich, Massachusetts. Today, the apparatus stands as a tangible reminder of a transitional era in technology, echoing debates over infrastructure and adoption that continue to resonate in the modern era.
